Le’ Chatelier’s Principle

Purpose: The purpose of this lab is to develop a deeper understanding of LeChatelier’s Principle by observing several systems at chemical equilibrium and interpreting the effects of varying concentrations and temperature. The principle states that if systems at equilibria are altered or disturbed in any form, the equilibria will shift to reduce the disturbing influence ( Catalyst, 186). In a 3 part experiment, we analyzed the outcome of changes in reactant and product concentrations, equilibrium involving sparingly soluble salts, and the effect of temperature on the equilibrium.In part 1 , we observed the shift in equilibria of two aqueous solutions of Copper and Ammonia then Nickel and Ammonia. In part 2, we focused on cobalt ions in the presence of chloride ions as well as the precipitation of silver nitrate and sodium carbonate. In the last part of the experiment we utilized a solution of Cobalt chloride and compared the color at room temperature and then again in a contain er of boiling water. Physical Data: No physical Data was applicable to the experiment. Chemical Equations: Part i: Changes in Reactant or Product Concentrations A. Copper and Nickel Ions [Cu(H2O)4]2+ (aq) + 4NH3(aq) [Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) blue dark blue †¢[Ni(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 6NH3(aq) [Ni(NH3)6]2+(aq) + 6H2O(l) green pale violet †¢H+(aq) + NH3(aq) NH4 +(aq) B. Cobalt Ions †¢[Co(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 4CL- (aq) [CoCl4]2-(aq) + 6H2O(l) Part ii: Equilibrium Involving Sparingly Soluble Salts †¢2AgNO3(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) Ag2CO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) †¢2Ag+(aq) + CO32-(aq) Ag2CO3(s) Net ionic equation ^ †¢2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq) H2CO3(aq); H2CO3(aq) > CO2(g) + H2O(l) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)AgCl(s) †¢Ag+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) [Ag(NH3)2]+(aq) †¢I-(aq) + Ag+(aq) AgI(s) Safety †¢Safety goggles are required to be worn throughout entire duration of the lab experiment. †¢Wear gloves, as the chemicals may cause serious damage to the skin skin. †¢Be sure to clean mat erials with soap and water before beginning any procedures. †¢When disposing wastes, be sure to do so in the appropriate receptacle. †¢Use precaution when handling all chemicals, careful not to inhale anything. Experimental Procedure and Observations Part i: Changes in Reactant or Product ConcentrationsA. Copper and Nickel Ions Procedure Copper 1. Place 1 mL of 0. 1 M CuSO4 in a clean test tube. 2. Add 15 M NH3 drop wise until a color change occurs. 3. Mix the solution in the test tube as you add the NH3. 4. Add 1 M HCl drop wise while mixing the solution, until the color changes. Nickel 1. Place about 1 mL of 0. 1 M NiCl2 in a clean test tube. 2. Add 15 M NH3 drop wise until a color change occurs. 3. Mix the solution in the test tube as you add the NH3. 4. Add 1 M HCl drop wise while mixing the solution, until the color changes. Observations Copper . The liquid is light blue in color. 2. The solution turned to royal blue. 3. Solution begins to slowly change to a more tran sparent blue. 4. We added 56 drops, the top of the solution remained royal blue as the bottom turned completely clear and colorless. After shaking it, it turned completely light blue. Nickel 1. The liquid is light/clear green in color. 2. The solution turned from green to blue to a lavender complex. 3. The solution turned to a clear lavender color. 4. The solution reverted back to clear green. B. Cobalt Ions Procedure 1. Place 0. mL of 1 M CoCl2 in a test tube. 2. Add 12 M HCl to test tube until a change is noticeable. 3. Slowly add water to the test tube while mixing. Observations 1. Exactly 10 drops are placed in the tube. The liquid is pale pink in color. 2. The solution turned to dark blue. 3. The solution slowly turns to purple, as little particles form on the bottom. A pale pink color began to form at the top and the color consumed the entire solution. Part ii: Equilibrium Involving Sparingly Soluble Salts Procedure 1. Add 10 drops of 0. 01 M AgNO3 to 0. 5 mL of 0. 1 M of Na2C O3. . With caution, add 6 M HNO3 drop wise until a change occurs. 3. Add . 1 M of HCl drop wise until a change is observed. 4. Add 15 M NH3 drop wise until a change occurs. 5. Add 6 M HNO3 drop wise until there is evidence of a chemical change. 6. While mixing the solution, add 15 M NH3 drop wise. 7. Add 0. 1 M KI drop wise until there is evidence of a chemical reaction. Observations 1. The original Na2CO3 solution is clear in color. The addition of AgNO3 turns it cloudy almost immediately. A small amount of precipitate is also visible in the solution. 2.Exactly 4 drops of HNO3 are added and the color of the solution reverts back to clear. 3. 4 drops of HCl are also added and the solution once again turns back cloudy with visible precipitate. 4. 15 drops of NH3 are used and the solution becomes colorless with the precipitate dissolving. 5. The solution remains colorless and a small gas cloud forms over the solution. 6. The solution is still clear and the gas above is still visible. 7. The solution turns white/ creamy in color. There is visible precipitate and the gas above the liquid is no longer visible. Part iii. Effect of Temperature on EquilibriaProcedure 1. Using a 250 ml beaker, heat 75ml of water until it begins to boil. 2. Place 1 mL of 1. 0 M CoCl2 in a test tube and place the test into the boiling water (Careful not to spill). Observations 1. The water heats to a temperature of about 135 °C. 2. The color of the CoCl2 at 20 °C is red. After placing it in the boiling water it changes to a deep pink/magenta color. Data/ Results Part i: A Part i: B Part ii Part iii Calculations: No mathematical calculations were applicable to the experiment. Discussion: Beginning with the first experiment, which consisted of the Copper, Nickel, and Ammonia.In both reactions, the strength of the ammonia is stronger than that of the water, causing each of them to dissociate. Once Hydrochloric acid is added to left of the equation, the ammonia binds to hydrogen forming ammonium and driving the reaction back in the direction that it came from. The equilibrium is therefore established by the Nickel ion and Ammonia and shifted by the hydrochloric acid once the hydrogen reacts with ammonia in a common acid-base reaction. The ammonia-metal bond in each of the reactions causes a precipitate to form because of the hydroxide ions that are left after the donation of the hydrogen.Part B of the experiment consisted of the aqueous Cobalt and chloride ions. The addition of the hydrochloric acid, once again induces an immediate change in color. The equilibrium of the equation is disturbed because of the acid, which lead to the left shift in the equation. Increasing the amount of water allowed H2O to act as a base forming H3O, allowing the reaction to move back to the right. In the second portion of the lab, the combination of silver and sodium carbonate leads to the formation of a precipitate. This is accounted for based on the silver+carbonate complex.Adding h ydrochloric acid forms an unstable carbonic acid which will later dissociate into carbon dioxide and water. This also has the effect of dissolving the silver carbonate and shifting the equation back to the left. Further removal of the silver on the left forces the reaction to move in the direction of the loss. Silver ions react with ammonia that is added and added more acid to this caused ammonium to form. Ammonia is added once more to reestablish the equilibrium. The final add-on of potassium iodide once again disrupts the balance because the silver reacts the iodide causing the reaction to move left.By manipulating the temperature, we were able to deduce information about the final reaction involving cobalt chloride. Starting near room temperature at exactly 20 °C the cobalt chloride started at a light pink color. After placing the solution in a heated water bath of exactly 135 °C, the contents of the test tube turned dark pink. The reaction is therefore endothermic as the coo l CoCl2 absorbed heat from it’s water bath before making a chemical change, therefore the reaction shifts to the right to absorb the heat. Conclusion:Conducting the experiment gave us the opportunity to learn about the effects of varying concentration and temperature in a system, hence the objectives were met because in performing each section of the lab, we were able to apply LeChatelier’s principle. The methods applied greatly aided in our understanding of the material as we had to apply previous knowledge to understand the behavior of the chemicals. Many of the solutions that were added drop wise had to be done that way as to not add too much because too much of a substance could prevent the reversal properties of the reaction.

Portes FIve Force In MBL Essays

Portes FIve Force In MBL Essays Portes FIve Force In MBL Essay Portes FIve Force In MBL Essay The Threat of new entrants: There is no real problem in the formation off new bank, and it is not even an unusual occurrence. It is also not unusual for an entity such as Merrill Lynch to offer ere bank like services to clients. The market is so large and so fragmented, that the significance off new entrant or even entrants is minute. If the concept of the combination of existing participants into what amount to new entities the importance of the concept changes, but only slightly. The new entity is nothing more than a combination of formerly existing entities, and its immediate effect on the market wills probably me minimal. Want to know the price of your unique Paper? 126 writers online Deadline Paper topic Pages 550 words(double spaced) Get a price Longer term, its increased size and financial strength may alter the market situation slightly. Bargaining power of customer: The bank is involved in import trade financing. Bulk importers of consumer durable, food gains industrial raw materials are its customers. The bank has financed in textile, garments, and SEEM and apparels sectors. The bank has a tread of choosing customer Trot Leverages groups . Nine Dank NAS TLS class customers In ten construction sectors involved in high-rise building, heavy construction and roads and high way construction. So, Customer bargaining power is high. Bargaining power of suppliers : A bank has three suppliers of its product, money: 1 . Its depositors 2. The credit market 3. The central bank The first source, depositors, has no bargaining power whatever in reality. If they make time deposits the bank will set the price or interest rate it will pay. If they have a demand deposit the bank pays nothing or effectively nothing for the deposit. It is possible that there may be some v variation in services as a form of competition, but a demand account (DAD) is not subject to great variation and most customers simply want an account and dont even know the exact terms of their account. Larger clients, reparations, government agencies, and wealthy individuals are offered packages of services in what is actually a form of market orientation in current management terminology. The bank is still the dominant party, even with very large clients, but the client can make the threat of going to another bank, and if he/she/it is large enough, the threat may have some significance. There is a distinct element of competition for the business of large accounts, but even here it would be very difficult for any entity to offer anything significant that its competitors could not plicate almost instantly. This part of the business becomes very much one of personalities and individuals as opposed to marketing initiatives. The bank advertisements on CNN all focus on the quality of the individuals and services. They say in effect, Our people are the best. The credit market as a source of supply of the raw material, money, is open to all at all times if they are qualified participants. The source of supply can be argued to be infinite. The Central bank is effectively the resource of last resort. Apparently, at least for the moment, it will continue to supply equity to the banking system in virtually unlimited quantities at very reasonable cost. The threat of substitute products: For the most part there is no real threat of substitute products in the banking industry. It could be argued that a personal loan is a substitute for a mortgage, but in reality both are loans and the loan is taken out because the customer wants money. The same can be said of other bank products, and even institutions. A mortgage company is a substitute for a bank, but it is the same product offered by an alternative vendor. There is a good chance the mortgage company is owned by a ann. holding company in any case. The only question is the origination of the loan. Bank transfers are more common in Europe than in United States banking practice. They serve approximately the same function as checks and some of the new Internet banking services are actually transfers, even in the states. There probably will be a continued evolution of products from paper to electronic in coming years. This is an area of potential competition, and probably innovation, but the final services, moving money from account A to account B will not change.

Grendel Essays - Grendel, Parallel Literature, Beowulf, Free Essays

Grendel Essays - Grendel, Parallel Literature, Beowulf, Free Essays Grendel Grendel is an unhappy soul in John Gardners book Grendel, because he feels useless in society and doesnt want to accept his given role. Throughout this whole book Grendel feels he has no friend in the outside word and no one to except him besides his own mother. He doesnt want to except his role in society which is to be the Great Destroyer. Man creates a huge problem in Grendels life and has had a major effect on the way he lives with man. Grendel is unhappy in many ways. He wants to be accepted by man but never knew why he was always shunned out of there society. Grendel in the beginning never set out to hurt man just understand him. When Grendel shows up the first time in the mead hall he yells Mercy! Peace! But no one even gives him a chance when he walks in holding a dead body and using it for protection against the drunken men swinging axes and swords at him. Grendel dose not understand this as he says they were doomed, I knew, and I was glad. showing the hope for destruction of the human race. In Grendels eyes humans are going to destroy themselves and he will be glad when it happens. Grendel is very lonely in the world of man. He has only one person close to him and that is his mother. She cares for Grendel but just with the natural motherly instincts which Grendel sees as mechanical. Grendel doesnt understand, Why cant I have someone to talk to? as the world starts to look darker in his eyes. Animals of all sorts are enemies of his because they dont understand him. Grendel is more superior Grendels role in society is to be the great destroyer. The Dragon tells Grendel this You improve them, my boy! You stimulate them! but Grendel dose not want to except it. HE want to be part of the humanistic world. He want a different role in society. This makes Grendel very unhappy that he cannot be accepted. The Dragon puts a spell on Grendel that lets weapons not harm him. At first he dose not like this because he thinks that the fun of destroying men would be to easy at this point. He starts to grow into this though and plays his role as the great destroyer. This book shows how Grendel put up with man and learned to adapt to the humanistic ways of life. It took him a while to adapt but he did find it fun to reck the humans world. Since he was not excepted he would have to take the role of the great destroyer at the end of the story.

Case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 1

Case Study Example The theory proposed a model that showed human development in five stages which covered up to the age of eighteen years and more stages ahead into adulthood. In relation to the observed behaviors, it is possible to correlate the stages of psychosocial theory with some of the observed behaviors. According to this theory, perfect completion of each of these stages results in a healthy and successful personality. The theory holds that the first stage is a stage of trust versus mistrust .He suggested that in this stage a child develops a great sense of trust in the events around him if care accorded to the child is sufficient (McLeod, 2012). This type of behavior was observed in Eunice in the first category of age groups who kept clinging to her mother’s dress. The second stage is characterized by autonomy, doubt and shame .This is an indication that the child is developing physically and also developing some form of independence. Eunice showed this behavior again as she walked away from her mother but came back later. The third stage is characterized by initiative where children assert themselves. This was observed in Michael at age of six as he plans activities to make games (David, Shaffer, & Kipp, 2009). The next stage involves competence where children begin to feel industrious and highly confident as they crave to achieve their objectives. This behavior was well observed in Catherine who fell in the age group of between six to twelve years. The fourth stage depicts identity and at times confusion .It is the most sensitive in a human life as one tries to realize him or herself both sexually and occupationally .It is accompanied by confusion which later subsides as one realizes who they are. The fifth stage is characterized by intimacy. It occurs during the age bracket of eighteen to forty years. It is characterized by long term relationships with

Case Study Of The Dsu In Operation - From Complaint To Resolution Dissertation

Case Study Of The Dsu In Operation - From Complaint To Resolution - Dissertation Example The study relies on primary qualitative data in the form case studies constructed out of selected resolved disputes by the Dispute Resolution Body, and primary quantitative data in the form of statistical profiles drawn from the summary reports of the WTO. In the analyses of the case studies and the statistical profiles, significance was drawn from the disputes between developing and developed countries, as either complainant or respondent, the success rates in the pursuit of these disputes for either side, and the agreements most often cited as bases of the disputes. These observations provided an insight into the manner of implementation of the DSU procedures, in so far as it affects the balance between developing and developed countries. Aside from providing commentary on the implementation of the dispute settlement process, the study also examined the provisions of the DSU and the process as it was envisioned. The findings show that the DSU provisions manifested an intention to create a procedural advantage in favour of developing countries in the creation of a legal structure in dispute settlement, mandating reverse consensus, and setting of deadlines to expedite the process. Deficiencies are still seen, however, in terms of the cost of dispute settlement, the need for expert knowledge of procedure, lack of standards in setting the duration of reasonable time for compliance, and the perceived inadequacies of trade retaliation and other remedial measures. Table of Contents Abstract 2 Table of Contents 3 1.1 Background of the research 5 1.2 Statement of the research objective 7 1.3 Research questions 7 1.4 Criteria for evaluation 8 1.5 Significance of the research objective 9 1.6 Scope and limitations 9 Chapter 2: History and background 11 2.1 International Trade Law 11 2.2 International Dispute Settlement 13 Chapter 3: Analysis of the WTO Dispute Settlement Procedures 15 3.1 The Dispute Settlement Procedure 15 3.2 Functioning of Dispute Settlement Body under WTO 19 3.3 Aim of the dispute settlement procedure 20 3.4 Commentary on the dispute settlement implementation 22 3.5 Examination of the application of Article 21.5 24 3.6 Effectiveness of trade retaliation measures: the inadequacy of remedies 27 3.7 Effectiveness of compensation measures 31 Chapter 4: Developing Countries and WTO dispute settlement procedure 36 4.1 Developing country defined 37 4.2 Uruguay Round reforms in favour of developing countries 38 4.3 Provisions that fav our developing countries. 41 4.4 Issues in the implementation of DSU involving developing countries 43 4.5 Two case studies involving disputes between developing and developed countries 48 4.6 Profiles of disputes between developing and developed (industrialized) countries 52 4.7 Analysis of the foregoing data 63 4.8 Comparison between dispute resolution under the GATT and under WTO-DSU 66 Chapter 5: Summary and Conclusion 68 5.1 Summary of findings 68 5.2 Conclusion 74 5.3 Recommendations for future research 74 Bibliography 76 Appendix A 79 Summary Table of Cases and Results 79 Appendix B 86 Table of Cases with Determination of â€Å"Reasonable Period of Time† 86 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background of the research Globalization is probably one of the most contentious concepts in the present-day political-economic landscape.1 Both extolled and disparaged, global trade has both its merits and its pitfalls; whether one is in favour of it or not, however, is no longer the que stion, as most countries have committed to liberalized international trade by virtue of their accession as signatories to multilateral trade agreements that promote global trade and commerce. The question now is the manner in which global trade must be

Management Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Management Communication - Essay Example c. Given your reputation for hiring the coolest cats in town, the big question is why the heck don’t I work there yet? I’m driven, way smarter than average, and would feel right at home in Vegas, baby! d. In addition to being an enthusiastic Zappos’ customer, I am also a customer service professional myself. A brilliant idea came to me last week while I was having yet another satisfying moment with your customer support crew: I want to be part of the team that can create such positive experience for customers. The fourth applicant has the most appealing application message that really attracts attention. The applicant has used words that touch on the current customer service at the company, being a loyal customer, and is already aware of the kind of service required f employees at the company. 2. You like to put applicants at ease right away, so you usually start interviews by asking an offbeat question to break the tension while also prompting the candidate to reveal something about his or her personality and knowledge. Which of these questions would you choose to start an interview? The most appropriate question to start an interview would be the one that aims at determining the level of commitment that an applicant is willing to demonstrate towards the job if selected. For instance, the question (b) suggests a tough task that can either attract negative response, a tactical answer, or completely positive one. 3. Zappos likes employees who can think on their feet, even when faced with outlandish questions and circumstances. Which of these questions would you use to judge a candidate’s ability to grasp a problem and begin developing a solution? a. You are a scientist with the Environmental Protection Agency, specializing in toxic wastes from electronic products. You’re testifying before a congressional committee, and a senator wants to

The New World Essay Example for Free

The New World Essay That idea of a distant paradise on earth shaped the way Europeans came to think of America after Columbus and his successors reported their discoveries. For example, the following mythic lands may have served as inspirations for the alluring idea of America as a place of joy, ease, riches, and regeneration: a. the Garden of the Hesperides of Greek myth b. the Elysian Fields described by the poet Homer c. the Islands of the Blessed, described by Hesiod, Horace, and Pindar d. Atlantis, described by Plato in the Timaeus and the Critias e. the Garden of Eden f. the Fortunate Isles, described in the Voyage of St. Brendan (ninth century) g. the enchanted gardens of Renaissance literature Columbus’s discovery of America has been described as â€Å"perhaps the most important event recorded in secular history. † On the other hand, it has been pointed out that had Columbus not discovered America, it would soon have been discovered by some other explorer. Edmundo O’Gorman, in The Invention of America (1961), asserted that America was not discovered but was invented by Europeans in the 16th and following centuries. The contrary idea of America as a place of degenerated plants, animals, and humans was also held by Europeans long before it was set forth by the French naturalist Buffon (1707–1788) in the early volumes of his Natural History (1749–1804). Thomas Jefferson made effective reply in his Notes on the State of Virginia (1785), but remnants of the idea continued to persist in the European popular mind. Modern readers are often surprised to learn of Columbus’s never-ending insistence, even in the face of contrary evidence, that he had reached the coast of Asia, not a new continent. That mistaken certainty was in large part caused by his faith in faulty calculations showing the earth’s circumference to be about 18,000 rather than 25,000 miles. The ancient geographer Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the earth with nearly perfect accuracy in the third century BCE. But Columbus, as did the best navigators of his time, relied on charts based on measurements made by the second-century-CE astronomer Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus). The calculation of the earth’s circumference presented in Ptolemy’s Guide to Geography (published, in Latin, in 1409) was off by more than 25 percent. Had the calculation been accurate, Columbus would have been correct in assuming that after sailing west for 33 days, he had indeed reached the Orient. Columbus’s writing style is spare and unornamented. In contrast, the letters (the first published in 1504) of Amerigo Vespucci, reporting his voyages to the New World from 1497 to 1504 (he claimed four,historians credit him with two), were filled with vivid and titillating details describing the new land and its inhabitants. As a result, Vespucci’s reports received greater attention throughout Europe than the reports (as distinct from the discovery itself) of Columbus. Because of Vespucci’s renown and because of his real accomplishments, the German geographer Martin Waldseemuller, in making his influential map of the new continent (1507), applied the name â€Å"America† to South America. Eventually, through popular usage, â€Å"America† came to be used for the North America as well. Vespucci’s voyage of 1501–1502 (under the flag of Portugal) along the coast of South America was the first extended exploration of the coast of the New World and the first to show clearly that the new lands were not a part of Asia but a new continent. That discovery is said by Vespucci’s partisans to justify naming the new continent America. Nevertheless, Vespucci has been vilified as a braggart and a windbag. Doubt has been cast on his accomplishments, although in recent decades they have in part been verified and shown to be substantial. Columbus’s first letter was printed and published in nine versions in 1493, and by 1500 it had appeared in nearly twenty editions. Yet his reports did not inspire the immediate outpouring of writing, personal and public, on the New World that might be expected. Indeed, from the last decades of the fifteenth century to the beginning decades of the seventeenth century, â€Å"four times as many books were devoted to the Turks and Asia as to America, and the proportion of books on Asia actually increased in the final decade† of that period (J. H. Elliot, The Old World and the New [1992] 12). When Columbus died in Vallodolid, Spain, in 1506, his death went unrecorded in the city chronicle. His fall to obscurity was in part caused by the fact that he was overbearing and irascible, creating many enemies. In addition,  the stories of his failures and his greed as a colonial administrator diminished him in the eyes of his contemporaries, further discouraging the celebration of his name in poems, romances, dramas, and histories. Columbus had failed to produce the expected supply of riches. He had failed to provide his voyages with effective chroniclers who could glorify his achievements, and he had no ability to effectively glorify himself in his written reports. Nor was he associated with a singular dramatic achievement—such as the conquest of the Aztec empire that raised Cortes to the stature of an epic hero. In the sixth century BC the Greek mathematician Pythagoras declared that the earth is a sphere. By the fifteenth century AD that fact was believed by the vast majority of educated Europeans. Yet a longstanding myth holds that Columbus was almost alone in believing that the earth is a sphere and for that belief suffered the ridicule of his learned contemporaries. The myth survives today, preserved in popular histories, tales, and even in popular song lyrics that proclaim: â€Å"They all laughed at Christopher Columbus /When he said the world was round. In reporting that he was the first to see a light in the distance, on the night of October 11, before the actual sighting of land on October 12, Columbus appears to claim that he was the first to see the Indies. Note also Columbus’s solicitation of support for further exploration, his offering, if â€Å"their highnesses will render very slight assistance,† to provide gold, spice, cotton, mastic, â€Å"aloe-wood,† and â€Å"slaves, as many as they shall order to be shipped. The explorers and conquerors of the New World in large measure based their justifications (stated or implied) for conquest on a.  the cultural superiority of the conquerors; b. the physical and mental inferiority of the conquered; c. the backwardness of the Americans’ culture and technical development; d. the obligation and the ability of the intruders to make better use of the land and its resources; e. the duty to bring Christianity to the heathen. Columbus does not use all such justifications. Note his report that the Indians are â€Å"of a very acute intelligence. † Modern critics of Columbus assert that his treatment of the Indians showed a disregard for their natural rights. But the popular idea that individuals have natural rights (much less â€Å"unalienable† natural rights) did not arise for several centuries. Columbus took possession of the newly discovered land â€Å"by proclamation made and with royal standard unfurled. † His act was not a dramatic gesture meant to awe the natives but a formal step (compare the flag planting by the American astronauts on the moon in 1969) to establish, according to the international law of the day, that the lands and their inhabitants were now the possessions of Spain and subject to Spanish authority. Having taken formal and legal possession of the land and its inhabitants for Spain, Columbus assumed that he, as a royal official, was therefore justified in capturing six Indians and returning them as exhibits to the Spanish king and queen, just as a royal official could order the lives of men and women in Spain itself. Because he believed that he had landed in the Indies, Columbus used the word â€Å"Indians† to describe the people he saw. In recent years the word has been attacked as inaccurate and demeaning, although Columbus did not intend it to be so. The substitute â€Å"Native American† has been advanced, and is the most widely preferred term. The term â€Å"Siberian American† has been offered in its place as a more accurate term, but it is seen as derisive by some and remains unpopular. Columbus reported of the Indians, â€Å"With 50 [European] men all of them could be held in subjection and can be made to do whatever one might wish. † Columbus was wrong. The attempt to coerce and enslave the men and women of the New World eventually failed. Yet the alluring idea of forcing native inhabitants to work for their conquerors long endured. For instance, John Smith reports of North American native inhabitants that they could be brought â€Å"all in subjection† and exploited by â€Å"forty or thirty† Englishmen. Discovery narratives traditionally report on the technical backwardness of the people of the discovered lands. In Columbus’s age the lack of technical development and the absence of metals such as iron and steel were taken as signs of primitive inferiority. In later ages, especially after the rise of the idea of the Noble Savage, a lack of technical achievement was taken as a sign of virtuous simplicity, of a life free of the dominance of the machine and the technological horrors that accompany it. Columbus describes the technical ignorance of the inhabitants and their unfamiliarity with metal-edged weapons: â€Å"I showed them swords and they took them by the edge and through ignorance cut themselves. † Compare John Smith’s report of the Indians’ fear of gunpowder and firearms their amazement at the movements of a compass needle. The technical ignorance of a reportedly benighted people has often been and is still used to justify their subjugation and colonization by a technically superior culture that asserts its right to conquer, usually because it can â€Å"make better use of the land. † In addition, there was recourse to the religious justification for colonization—the argument that Christians have the right and the duty to lead (by force if necessary) those living in spiritual darkness into the light of religious truth and to the blessings of heaven. The religious justification is offered as a benefit to the pagans themselves. The technological argument is not. Rather its end is the fruitful exploitation of the land and its natural resources for the colonizers. But even the technological argument for exploiting the land has its biblical justification in the declarations that the land exists for the benefit of man, who therefore has an obligation to exploit and â€Å"subdue† it (Genesis 1:28). That Columbus was a sincere believer in Christianity is not in doubt. His devout faith is evident inthe names he gave the first islands he encountered in the New World: San Salvador and Isla de Santa Maria de Concepcion. Yet his religious motives for colonizing the lands he discovered have sometimes been dismissed as a disguise for his true motives: greed for gold and desire to extract riches from the land. The desire for religious conversions and for gold is evident in almost all the early narratives of New World discovery. Columbus hoped to bring Christianity to the heathen by establishing the religion of Spain in the new lands. He had no desire to promote religious liberty and would have strongly resisted the idea. John Smith similarly believed that the English lands in North America should be colonized under the protection of an established church—the Church of England. It is worthwhile to compare the views of Columbus and Smith to the views of the Pilgrims and the Puritans who wished to escape what they believed to be an oppressive established church—though they themselves then demonstrated an oppressive narrowness with respect to departures from the confines of their views. Notice the appearance in Columbus’s reports of themes later apparent in American literature: a. America as a land suited to Christian evangelism and the ultimate coming of â€Å"the church triumphant† b. America as a paradise of exotic landscape and people and of simple and innocent life c. America as a place for economic, political, and spiritual opportunity and personal fulfillment. THOMAS HARIOT Thomas Hariot was among the first British explorers to arrive in the New World. Unlike Columbus, he was at least as much a scientist as an explorer. He was particularly interested in astronomy, optics, and the study of mathematics. Hariot’s A Briefe and True Report of the Newfound Land of Virginia gives perspectives on the New World that differ from Columbus’s in accordance with his intellectual interests, as well as his nationality and the part of the world (Virginia, as opposed to the West Indies) that he visited. The third, and final, part of his report, presented in the anthology, offers another view of the inhabitants of the newly discovered land. JOHN SMITH John Smith has been described as the author of â€Å"the first English book written in America† (for his A True Relation of Occurrences and Accidents in Virginia [1608]), and his work is seen as a forerunner of a native, American literature. Smith’s accounts are also an early example of New World writing that emphasizes human qualities commonly thought to be typically American. Note his references to a. Practicality; b. Boastfulness; c. dislike of showy elegance; d. desire to exploit the environment. Smith’s description of New England combines two images of the New World that were current in Europe in the seventeenth century: a.  the image of America as a paradise, a voluptuous land of easy riches b. the image of America as a land that would reward those showing the Protestant virtues of enterprise and willingness to work hard. The first image draws upon ancient myths that describe gardens of ease, joy, and eternal life. The second derives from the ideals of the capitalist middle class that rose to power with the end of feudalism in Europe. A third image, of America as a New Jerusalem, as a place for religious salvation, is not evident in Smith’s writings. Consider the rise to prominence of that third image after 1630 and the coming of the Puritans to Massachusetts Bay. Note how Smith writes of the visible, material world—describing plants, animals, and men—rather than the immaterial, speculative world of philosophy and theology. Smith assumed that the New World is for man’s exploitation, for his physical enjoyment, and for his earthly fulfillment—an assumption at odds with the Puritans’ view of the New World as a place of spiritual testing and of preparation for a fulfillment to be achieved only in heaven. Smith is often contrasted to the Puritans (and the Pilgrims), but there are these similarities: a. Both saw America as a place where individual men and women could escape from Old-World restraints and traditions. b. Both celebrated the possibility of communal, as well as individual regeneration in the lands claimed by England in the New World. c. Both condemned luxury and emphasized the virtues of hard work, abstinence, and enterprise. d. And both saw a life of ease and luxury as a sign of decay that portends inevitable destruction. Smith made no mention of religious freedom as a reason for colonizing. His own motives for colonizing (and what he believed to be the prime motives of others) were secular and materialistic: â€Å"For I am not so simple as to think that ever any other motive than wealth will ever erect there a commonwealth. † General History and his Description of New England are propaganda for colonization as much as they are descriptions of the New World. That is evident in the number and the variety of advantages he cites for colonization: a. profits for investors—†satisfaction of the adventurers†. Markets for English manufacturers—a letter survives, written by Smith to the London Society of Cordwainers (shoemakers) to point out that the Cordwainers, in their own self-interest, should support the settlement of Virginia because the rough land and the shell-strewn beaches of the New World were certain to wear out many shoes c. glory for the colonizers and their monarch—†eternizing of the memory† d. abundant raw materials, especially timber and naval stores. Some of the essentials for colonizing success set forth by Smith in A Description of New England (â€Å"provided always that first there be †): a. potent local government b. housing c. means of self-defense d. adequate provisions e. trained craftsmen Many reasons have been offered to explain why the Jamestown colonists failed to exert themselves sufficiently in establishing their colony: a. that too many of the colonists were â€Å"ne’er-do-wells† and gentlemen who were unused to hard work b. that the colonists were weakened by hunger and disease c. that the â€Å"communal basis† of the settlement discouraged individual enterprise. That many of the early colonizing reports, especially those written by the Spanish colonizers, encouraged the expectation that riches would be quickly found and profits quickly earned, that the â€Å"naturals† could be forced to supply the colonists with food, and that therefore diligent labor was unnecessary e. that the colonists expected their needs to be met by their London backers Note that none of the above explanations suggests that the English colonists, lacking government support such as the Spanish enjoyed, failed because their attempt to colonize Virginia at that time and place was simply beyond their abilities. Smith attributed the difficulties at Jamestown to dissension, weak government, lack of organization, and mistaken attempts by a central governing body (in London) to exert control at long distance. Such problems of government and society arose partly from human characteristics that later came to be considered distinctly American: a. radical individualism b. disrespect for law and governments c. hostility toward distant, central governments d. Contempt for traditions of rank, privilege, and authority Note how such characteristics were prominent among the causes of the American Revolution, 170 years later, and how those same characteristics win popular praise today. It is also notable that the American environment and its great distance from Europe prohibited the easy transfer to America of England’s a. feudal class structure; b. widespread belief in the worth of a noble class and an idle gentry; c. upper-class contempt for those in â€Å"trade† or whose jobs required hard, physical labor; d. high valuation of the contemplative, intellectual life; Customs of labor, farming, law, and political organization. The travel literature of the 16th and 17th centuries commonly reported incidents in which New World savages were awestruck by examples of European science and technology. When Powhatan’s followers captured Smith, in December 1607, he was first exhibited before neighboring tribes. Smith’s description of events permits the conclusion that the Indians displayed him as a great trophy because he was a noble warrior (for his brave resistance) and a mighty wizard (for his tricks with a compass). Perhaps a better reason for the exhibition before local sub-tribes and their chiefs was revealed in 1845 when a manuscript letter (written in 1608) by Edward Maria Wingfield, former President of the Colony (and Smith’s enemy), was discovered and published. Wingfield wrote: having him prisoner, [they] carried him to [their] neighbors to see if any of them knew him for one of those which had been, some two or three years before us, in a river amongst them northward and [had] taken away some Indians from them by force. At last [they] brought him to the great Powhatan (of whom before we had no knowledge) who sent him home to our town the 8th of January [1608]. Pocahontas’s formal, tribal name was â€Å"Matoaka. † The nickname â€Å"Pocahontas† (meaning â€Å"playfulone†) was given to her by her father, Powhatan. Such nicknames were common among the Native peoples in Virginia. Powhatan himself had the tribal name of â€Å"Wahunsonacock,† the name â€Å"Powhatan† later takenfrom the name of the region in which he ruled. At the time of their adventure, Smith was 28 and Pocahontas 12 or 13. She died in 1617 while on a visit to England, well before any detailed description of her rescue of Smith was published. It is not known whether Smith saw Pocahontas while she was in England, and little is known of her true character. In his History of Travel into Virginia Britannia (1612), William Strachey described Pocahontas as: a well featured but wanton young girl, Powhatan’s daughter, [who], sometimes resorting to our fort, of the age then of 11 or 12 years, [would] get the boys forth with her into the market place and made them [cart]wheel, falling on their hands turning their heels upwards, whom she would follow, and [cart]wheel so herself, naked as she was, all the fort over. It is interesting to consider what qualities in Strachey’s â€Å"wanton young girl† and Smith’s savior helped make her the first heroine of American myth and folklore. Some points to note: a. Pocahontas’s similarity to ancient mythic heroines, daughters of kings who protect a heroic stranger renounce their native lands and people, yet fail to marry the hero—heroines . b. the similarity of Pocahontas’s experiences to those told in the various medieval romances c. Pocahontas’s similarity to historical American Indian heroines, such as Sacagawea (who served as guide and interpreter for Lewis and Clark) and Malinche (interpreter for Cortes in his conquest of the Aztecs) d. Pocahontas’s early appearance in literature, first referred to in Ben Jonson’s play Staple of News (1625) and then the subject of later works, such as (1) The Female American (1767), a novel published in London and described as â€Å"a second Robinson Crusoe†, and (2) The Indian Princess (1808), an American play, the first of many Pocahontas dramas, and the first of the vastly popular â€Å"Indian Plays† of the nineteenth-century American stage.